Sand. Made up of 25 percent silicon, is, after oxygen, the second most abundant chemical element that�s in the earth�s crust. Sand, especially quartz, has high percentages of silicon in the form of silicon dioxide (SiO2) and is the base ingredient for semiconductor manufacturing.
After procuring raw sand and separating the silicon, the excess material is disposed of and the silicon is purified in multiple steps to finally reach semiconductor manufacturing quality which is called electronic grade silicon. The resulting purity is so great that electronic grade silicon may only have one alien atom for every one billion silicon atoms. After the purification process, the silicon enters the melting phase. In this picture you can see how one big crystal is grown from the purified silicon melt. The resulting mono-crystal is called an ingot.
A mono-crystal ingot is produced from electronic grade silicon. One ingot weighs approximately 100 kilograms (or 220 pounds) and has a silicon purity of 99.9999 percent.
The ingot is then moved onto the slicing phase where individual silicon discs, called wafers, are sliced thin. Some ingots can stand higher than five feet. Several different diameters of ingots exist depending on the required wafer size. Today, CPUs are commonly made on 300 mm wafers.
Once cut, the wafers are polished until they have flawless, mirror-smooth surfaces. Intel doesn�t produce its own ingots and wafers, and instead purchases manufacturing-ready wafers from third-party companies. Intel�s advanced 45 nm High-K/Metal Gate process uses wafers with a diameter of 300 mm (or 12-inches). When Intel first began making chips, it printed circuits on 50 mm (2-inches) wafers. These days, Intel uses 300 mm wafers, resulting in decreased costs per chip.
The blue liquid, depicted above, is a photo resist finish similar to those used in film for photography. The wafer spins during this step to allow an evenly-distributed coating that�s smooth and also very thin.
At this stage, the photo-resistant finish is exposed to ultra violet (UV) light. The chemical reaction triggered by the UV light is similar to what happens to film material in a camera the moment you press the shutter button.
Areas of the resist on the wafer that have been exposed to UV light will become soluble. The exposure is done using masks that act like stencils. When used with UV light, masks create the various circuit patterns. The building of a CPU essentially repeats this process over and over until multiple layers are stacked on top of each other.
A lens (middle) reduces the mask�s image to a small focal point. The resulting �print� on the wafer is typically four times smaller, linearly, than the mask�s pattern.
In the picture we have a representation of what a single transistor would appear like if we could see it with the naked eye. A transistor acts as a switch, controlling the flow of electrical current in a computer chip. Intel researchers have developed transistors so small that they claim roughly 30 million of them could fit on the head of a pin.
After being exposed to UV light, the exposed blue photo resist areas are completely dissolved by a solvent. This reveals a pattern of photo resist made by the mask. The beginnings of transistors, interconnects, and other electrical contacts begin to grow from this point.
The photo resist layer protects wafer material that should not be etched away. Areas that were exposed will be etched away with chemicals.
After the etching, the photo resist is removed and the desired shape becomes visible.
More photo resist (blue) is applied and then re-exposed to UV light. Exposed photo resist is then washed off again before the next step, which is called ion doping. This is the step where ion particles are exposed to the wafer, allowing the silicon to change its chemical properties in a way that allows the CPU to control the flow of electricity.
Tags: camera, earth, photo, photography
An Adelie penguin on an iceberg in Yalour Islands, Antarctic Peninsula
Tags: beautiful, birds, camera, collection, mini, photo, wild
Jan 22
Although there is no solid evidence to advocate the supernatural, the fact remainsthat there have been repeated accounts of ghost sightings and paranormal phenomena a
t several locations across the globe. The legends vary as per culture and folklore but the reports remain roughly the same.There are things out there in the world that science is yet unable to explain and until it does,
if ever, the possibility of the existence of things beyond science, those that go bump in the darkcannot be completely ignored. Following is a list of ten of the creepiest haunted places of the world.Monte Cristo Homestead
Located in Junee, New South Wales, Monte Cristo Homestead is said to be the MOST Haunted
house of Australia. Visitors and occupants have reported seeing ghosts of the deceased originalowners, the Crawleys. The mansion now serves as an antique store and tourist attraction and has
been featured in numerous TV shows.
50 Berkeley Square
Built back in 1740, this four-storey townhouse is now known as the most haunted house in
London. There have been a number of deaths and reported supernatural occurrences on the top floor of the building.Changi Beach
During the Japanese occupation of Singapore in World War II, in an organized massacre called
the Sook Ching operation, Chinese locals were taken by the Japanese military to isolatedlocations within the island country and killed. Among those locations was Changi Beach Park
where, it is rumored, the cries of the massacred can still be heard. Ghostly visages have beenreported roaming about the beach, leaving trails of blood.
Screaming Tunnel
This tunnel in Niagara Falls, Ontario,Canada gets its name from several variants of a legend according
to which a young girl was burned alive inside the tunnel. It is alleged that if a matchstick is litwithin the tunnel, the ghost of the girl begins to scream, as if in throws of death.
Bachelor�s Grove Cemetery
This small and currently inactive cemetery in Chicago has been a hotspot for satanic rituals
for quite some time. These rituals have worked to escalate rumors of ghost sightings inthe graveyard. The graveyard is well-known for a photograph taken in 1991 using an infrared camera
that shows a White Lady sitting on a checkered pedestal.Bhangarh Fort Ruins
The Banargh Fort sits on a hillside in the ruined town of Bhangarh located in Rajasthan, India.
Legend says that a tantric (black magician) called Singhia, in an attempt to entice the princessof Bhangarh became a victim of his own sorcery and in his dying breaths, cursed the palace.
In the year following this incident, the princess was killed in a battle between Bhangarh and Ajabgarh.Babenhausen Museum
Formerly a German barracks, this museum is believed to be haunted by the ghosts of German soldiers.
It is said a witch was burned at the stake in the town of Babenhausen and since then,her ghost has taken the lives of several German soldiers and that even now, if a soldier were tovisit the museum and pick up a telephone, he would hear the voice of a woman talking backwards.
Union Cemetery
The Union Cemetery of Easton, Connecticut is believed one of the most haunted cemeteries in the
United States. Reported hauntings include the famous White Lady and a pair of ominous red eyespeering from out of a bush. A variety of legends surround both phenomena.
The Screaming Bridge of Maud Hughes Road
Maud Hughes Road Bridge of Liberty Township, Ohio is believed to be haunted by the ghosts of the
several people who lost their lives or committed suicide on the bridge. According to one legend,a lady threw her baby off the bridge onto the train tracks below and then hung herself. Sightings of a
black hooded figure and a phantom train have also been reported.The George Stickney House
Currently serving as the Police Department of the village of Bull Valley in McHenry County, Illinois,
the Stickney Mansion is said to be plagued by paranormal entities. It is said that the Stickneys used to performs�ances in the house to contact their dead children.
Tags: australia, camera, canada, india, phone, photo, princess, soldiers, village, world
The Old Mill, Pigeon Forge, Tennessee 
The Old Mill, North Little Rock, Arkansas 
The Many Moods of Venice, Italy 
The Lights of Sydney, 
The Lights of Hong Kong 
